Caste
A hereditary social group defined by endogamy, occupation, and ritual hierarchy.
A caste is a social group assigned at birth within a system of fixed social stratification. In such a system, people must marry within their own caste, often follow occupations tied to that group, hold a specific ritual rank in a hierarchy, and face restrictions on interaction with others, based on ideas of purity and pollution. The word "caste" also describes the distinct physical forms found in eusocial insects like ants, bees, and termites. The classic example studied by anthropologists and sociologists is the rigid social division of Hindu society in India, which has ancient South Asian roots and continues today. This Hindu caste system sometimes serves as a model for understanding similar social divisions outside India and Hinduism. In colonial Spanish America, mixed-race *castas* formed a category within the Hispanic sector, but the overall social order was more flexible.
The English term "caste" comes from the Spanish and Portuguese *casta*. According to a 1569 Spanish dictionary, *casta* meant "race, lineage, tribe or breed." The word originated in the Gothic *kasts*, meaning "group of animals," and entered Iberian languages with that sense, then evolved to mean "race of men" and later "class or condition of men." Spanish colonizers in the New World used it for "clan or lineage." However, it was the Portuguese—the first Europeans to reach India by sea in 1498—who first used *casta* in its modern sense, applying it to the thousands of endogamous, hereditary Indian social groups they encountered. The English spelling "caste" with this meaning first appears in 1613. In Latin America, "caste" sometimes refers to the *casta* system of racial classification, which ranked people by pure European, Indigenous, or African descent, or mixed ancestry. Despite the etymological link between the Latin American *casta* system and South Asian caste systems (the former gave its name to the latter), how comparable the two phenomena are remains debated.
In South Asia, modern India's caste system overlays an old four-part theoretical classification called *varna* onto actual social ethnic groups called *jāti*. The Vedic period envisioned society as four *varnas*: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra, based on members' work. A 2016 DNA study of unrelated Indians found that endogamous *jātis* emerged roughly 1,900–4,200 years ago, with the practice of endogamy becomin
- Etymology
- Derives from Spanish and Portuguese 'casta', meaning 'race, lineage, tribe or breed', ultimately from Gothic 'kasts' ('group of animals').
- First English attestation
- 1613, with the modern sense of hereditary Indian social groups.
- Indian classification
- Based on varna (four theoretical categories: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) and jāti (thousands of endogamous birth groups).
- Number of castes in India
- Around 3,000 castes and 25,000 sub-castes.
- Dalit population (2001)
- 16.2% of India's population.
- Colonial census
- From 1901, British authorities categorized all jātis into the four varna categories.
- Last caste-based census
- Conducted in 1931 by the British Raj; no subsequent nationwide caste census has been officially completed as of the present.
Lore & Background
The English word 'caste' entered the language from Spanish and Portuguese 'casta', which originally meant 'type of animal' and later 'race of men'. Portuguese explorers first applied the term to the endogamous, hereditary social groups they encountered in India after 1498. In India, the caste system is based on the superimposition of an ancient four-fold theoretical classification called varna (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) onto thousands of actual endogamous social groups called jāti. A 2016 DNA study determined that endogamous jātis originated during the Gupta Empire (c. 240 – c. 579 CE).
Reader's Guide
The caste system has been a central subject of study for sociologists and anthropologists, often used as an analogical basis for understanding caste-like divisions outside Hinduism and India. In colonial Spanish America, mixed-race castas existed within the Hispanic sector, though the social order was otherwise fluid. The British colonial administration, starting with the 1901 Census led by Herbert Hope Risley, systematically categorized all jātis into the four varna categories, a practice that scholars argue constructed Indian society as traditionally caste-based and downplayed economic and political factors. After independence, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 jātis as Scheduled Castes for positive discrimination and banned caste-based discrimination, though the practice persisted. Caste-related violence remains documented, with approximately 110,000 reported violent acts against Dalits in 2005. Urbanization and affirmative action have reduced some socio-economic limitations, but scholar Anand Teltumbde noted in 2023 that Indian society is now more 'casteist' than ever. The caste system continues to influence endogamy, patrimony, and politics, with caste associations evolving into political parties.
Did You Know?
- The term 'caste' is also applied to morphological groupings in eusocial insects such as ants, bees, and termites.
- The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India by sea in 1498 and first employed 'casta' in the modern sense of 'caste'.
- A 2016 DNA study of unrelated Indians determined that endogamous jātis originated during the Gupta Empire (c. 240 – c. 579 CE).
- In 2026, the Indian government led by Modi's BJP resumed a caste-based census, the last one having been conducted by the British Raj in 1931.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is caste?
Caste is a hereditary social group into which a person is born within a rigidly stratified system. Members are typically required to marry within their own group, follow occupation-specific roles, and observe rules governing interaction with other groups rooted in ideas of purity and pollution.
Where does the word 'caste' come from?
The term descends from the Spanish and Portuguese word 'casta,' meaning race, lineage, or breed, which itself traces back to the Gothic 'kasts,' a word for a group of animals. It entered English in 1613, originally referring to the hereditary social divisions of Indian society.
How many castes exist in India?
India is home to roughly 3,000 castes and about 25,000 sub-castes. These groups are organized under the broader theoretical framework of varna, which divides society into four broad categories: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra.
What is the difference between varna and jāti?
Varna refers to the four broad, theoretical tiers of the Hindu social hierarchy, whereas jāti names the thousands of specific, endogamous birth groups people actually identify with in everyday life. In practice, every individual belongs to a particular jāti that is nested within one of the four varna categories.
Why is caste important in the study of social identity and prejudice?
Caste offers one of the most extensively studied real-world cases of how birth-based group membership shapes identity, restricts social mobility, and fuels intergroup bias through rigid rules on interaction and ritual rank. The term also extends beyond human societies, describing the distinct physical and functional forms found in eusocial insects such as ants, bees, and termites.
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